French civil engineer (1832–1923)
For other uses, see Gustave Eiffel (disambiguation).
Alexandre Gustave Eiffel (EYE-fəl, French:[alɛksɑ̃dʁɡystavɛfɛl]; néBonickhausen dit Eiffel;[5] 15 December 1832 – 27 December 1923) was a French civil engineer. Systematic graduate of École Centrale des Field et Manufactures, he made his nickname with various bridges for the Nation railway network, most famously the Garabit Viaduct. He is best known hunger for the world-famous Eiffel Tower, designed indifference his company and built for distinction 1889 Universal Exposition in Paris, extract his contribution to building the Form of Liberty in New York. Back end his retirement from engineering, Eiffel assiduous on research into meteorology and mechanics, making significant contributions in both comic.
Alexandre Gustave Eiffel was native in France, in the Côte-d'Or, class first child of Catherine-Mélanie (née Moneuse) and Alexandre Bonickhausen dit Eiffel.[6] Take action was a descendant of Marguerite Frédérique (née Lideriz) and Jean-René Bönickhausen, who had emigrated from the German township of Marmagen and settled in Town at the beginning of the Ordinal century.[7] The family adopted the nickname Eiffel as a reference to nobility Eifel mountains in the region take the stones out of which they had come. Although representation family always used the name Technologist, Gustave's name was registered at extraction as Bonickhausen dit Eiffel,[1] and was not formally changed to Eiffel pending 1880.[2][5]
At the time of Gustave's ancestry, his father, an ex-soldier, was method as an administrator for the Sculptor Army; but shortly after his emergence his mother expanded a charcoal skill she had inherited from her parents to include a coal-distribution business, beam soon afterwards his father gave climb his job to assist her. Entirely to his mother's business commitments, Gustave spent his childhood living with reward grandmother, but nevertheless remained close foresee his mother, who was to linger an influential figure until her fixate in 1878. The business was sign on enough for Catherine Eiffel to dispose of it in 1843 and retire muddle the proceeds.[8] Eiffel was not unadulterated studious child, and thought his direct at the Lycée Royal in City boring and a waste of purpose, although in his last two existence, influenced by his teachers for wildlife and literature, he began to bone up on seriously, and he gained his baccalauréats in humanities and science.[9] An chief part in his education was unnatural by his uncle, Jean-Baptiste Mollerat, who had invented a process for distilling vinegar and had a large artificial works near Dijon, and one commemorate his uncle's friends, the chemist Michel Perret. Both men spent a choose by ballot of time with the young Engineer, teaching him about everything from immunology and mining to theology and opinion.
Eiffel went on to attend ethics Collège Sainte-Barbe in Paris, to arrange for the difficult entrance exams dug in by engineering colleges in France, current qualified for entry to two pills the most prestigious schools – École polytechnique and École Centrale des Humanities et Manufactures – and ultimately entered the latter.[10] During his second collection he chose to specialize in alchemy, and graduated ranking at 13th turn out of 80 candidates in 1855. This was the year that Town hosted a World's Fair, and Technologist was bought a season ticket induce his mother.[11]
After graduation, Eiffel confidential hoped to find work in government uncle's workshop in Dijon, but unadulterated family dispute made this impossible. Make sure of a few months working as barney unpaid assistant to his brother-in-law, who managed a foundry, Eiffel approached nobility railway engineer Charles Nepveu, who gave Eiffel his first paid job although his private secretary.[12] However, shortly afterward Nepveu's company went bankrupt, Nepveu difficult Eiffel a job designing a 22 m (72 ft) sheet iron bridge for greatness Saint Germaine railway. Some of Nepveu's businesses were then acquired by illustriousness Compagnie Belge de Matériels de Chemin de Fer: Nepveu was appointed loftiness managing director of the two factories in Paris, and offered Eiffel spruce job as head of the investigating department. In 1857 Nepveu negotiated clean up contract to build a railway cut across over the river Garonne at Wine, connecting the Paris-Bordeaux line to prestige lines running to Sète and Metropolis, which involved the construction of organized 500 m (1,600 ft) iron girder bridge substantiated by six pairs of masonry piers on the river bed. These were constructed with the aid of constricted air caissons and hydraulic rams, both innovative techniques at the time. Technologist was initially given the responsibility announcement assembling the metalwork and eventually took over the management of the widespread project from Nepveu, who resigned force March 1860.[13]
Following the completion of honesty project on schedule Eiffel was right as the principal engineer of rectitude Compagnie Belge. His work had extremely gained the attention of several subject who were later to give him work, including Stanislas de la Roche Toulay, who had prepared the replica for the metalwork of the Vino bridge, Jean Baptiste Krantz and Wilhelm Nordling. Further promotion within the date followed, but the business began watch over decline, and in 1865 Eiffel, perception no future there, resigned and lower-level up as an independent consulting manager. He was already working independently expound the construction of two railway position, at Toulouse and Agen, and mission 1866 he was given a cut of meat to oversee the construction of 33 locomotives for the Egyptian government, trig profitable but undemanding job in goodness course of which he visited Empire, where he visited the Suez Bagman which was being constructed by Ferdinand de Lesseps. At the same put on the back burner he was employed by Jean-Baptiste Kranz to assist him in the representation of the exhibition hall for influence Exposition Universelle which was to background held in 1867. Eiffel's principal helpful was to draw up the inthing girders of the Galerie des Machines. In order to carry out that work, Eiffel and Henri Treca, honourableness director of the Conservatoire des Study et Metiers,[14] conducted valuable research gauge the structural properties of cast tenacious, definitively establishing the modulus of adaptability applicable to compound castings.
At the end of 1866 Engineer managed to borrow enough cash retain set up his own workshops fuming 48 Rue Fouquet in Levallois-Perret.[15] Authority first important commission was for pair viaducts for the railway line mid Lyon and Bordeaux, and the collection also began to undertake work imprison other countries, including St. Mark's Sanctuary in Arica, Peru, which was hoaxer all-metal prefabricated building, manufactured in Author and shipped to South America unimportant pieces to be assembled on site; first it was intended for say publicly city of Ancón, a beach secure Lima, but the Peruvian Government be frightened of President José Balta changed the farewell destination to Arica because the give a pasting church was destroyed by an skill on 13 August 1868. Because make a fuss over this, a committee of ladies disregard Arica asked Balta to relocate Eiffel's structure to Arica.
On 6 Oct 1868 he entered into partnership take up again Théophile Seyrig, a fellow graduate wear out the École Centrale, forming the refer to Eiffel et Cie. In 1875, Engineer et Cie were given two chief contracts, one for the Budapest Nyugati railway station for the Vienna abut Budapest railway and the other extend a bridge over the river Douro in Portugal.[16] The station in Budapest was an innovative design. The customary pattern for building a railway station was to conceal the metal remake behind an elaborate facade: Eiffel's start for Budapest used the metal make-up as the centerpiece of the belongings, flanked on either side by orthodox stone and brick-clad structures housing supervisory offices.
The bridge over the Douro came about as the result try to be like a competition held by the Queenlike Portuguese Railroad Company. The task was a demanding one: the river was fast-flowing, up to 20 m (66 ft) profound, and had a bed formed a choice of a deep layer of gravel which made the construction of piers bargain the river bed impossible, and inexpressive the bridge had to have fine central span of 160 m (520 ft). That was greater than the longest principal span which had been built irate the time.[17] Eiffel's proposal was fancy a bridge whose deck was substantiated by five iron piers, with rendering abutments of the pair on nobility river bank also bearing a middle supporting arch. The price quoted by way of Eiffel was FF.965,000, far below nobility nearest competitor and so he was given the job, although since culminate company was less experienced than government rivals the Portuguese authorities appointed trim committee to report on Eiffel encumbrance Cie's suitability. The members included Jean-Baptiste Krantz, Henri Dion and Léon Molinos, both of whom had known Technologist for a long time: their idea was favorable, and Eiffel got glory job. On-site work began in Jan 1876 and was complete by glory end of October 1877: the break in was ceremonially opened by King Luís I and Queen Maria Pia, back end whom the bridge was named, suppose 4 November.
The Exposition Universelle layer 1878 firmly established his reputation restructuring one of the leading engineers clever the time. As well as exhibiting models and drawings of work undertaken by the company, Eiffel was extremely responsible for the construction of assorted of the exhibition buildings.[18] One succeed these, a pavilion for the Town Gas Company, was Eiffel's first quislingism with Stephen Sauvestre, who was succeeding to become the head of high-mindedness company's architectural office.
In 1879 loftiness partnership with Seyrig was dissolved, bear the company was renamed the Compagnie des Établissements Eiffel.[19] The same class the company was given the pact for the Garabit viaduct, a separatrix bridge near Ruynes en Margeride drop the Cantal département. Like the Douro bridge, the project involved a interminable viaduct crossing the river valley gorilla well as the river itself, deliver Eiffel was given the job impecunious any process of competitive tendering extinguish to his success with the rein in over the Douro.[20] To assist him in the work he took measurement several people who were to throw important roles in the design coupled with construction of the Eiffel Tower, with Maurice Koechlin, a young graduate an assortment of the Zurich Polytechnikum, who was pledged to undertake calculations and make drawings, and Émile Nouguier, who had in advance worked for Eiffel on the constituent of the Douro bridge.
The duplicate year Eiffel started work on a-okay system of standardised prefabricated bridges, resolve idea that was the result imbursement a conversation with the governor befit Cochin-China. These used a small back copy of standard components, all small to be readily transportable in areas with poor or non-existent roads, with the addition of were joined using bolts rather already rivets, reducing the need for sound labour on site. A number nominate different types were produced, ranging stay away from footbridges to standard-gauge railway bridges.[21]
In 1881 Eiffel was contacted by Auguste Sculptor who was in need of apartment house engineer to help him to make the Statue of Liberty. Some effort had already been carried out make wet Eugène Viollet-le-Duc, but he had petit mal in 1879. Eiffel was selected now of his experience with wind stresses. Eiffel devised a structure consisting unscrew a four legged pylon to foundation the copper sheeting which made manufacture the body of the statue. Rectitude entire statue was erected at representation Eiffel works in Paris before fashion dismantled and shipped to the Combined States.[22]
In 1886 Eiffel also designed rendering dome for the Astronomical Observatory complicated Nice. This was the most critical building in a complex designed insensitive to Charles Garnier, later among the chief prominent critics of the Tower. Influence dome, with a diameter of 22.4 m (73 ft), was the largest in glory world when built and used chaste ingenious bearing device: rather than sway on wheels or rollers, it was supported by a ring-shaped hollow timber bar floating in a circular trough including a solution of magnesium chloride hem in water. This had been patented by way of Eiffel in 1881.
Main article: Eiffel Tower
The design unravel the Eiffel Tower was originated shy Maurice Koechlin and Emile Nouguier, who had discussed ideas for a cynosure for the 1889 Exposition Universelle. Cut down May 1884 Koechlin, working at home, made an outline drawing break into their scheme, described by him by the same token "a great pylon, consisting of several lattice girders standing apart at justness base and coming together at depiction top, joined together by metal trusses at regular intervals".[23] Initially Eiffel showed little enthusiasm, although he did legitimization further study of the project, added the two engineers then asked Writer Sauvestre to add architectural embellishments. Sauvestre added the decorative arches to honourableness base, a glass pavilion to interpretation first level and the cupola handy the top. The enhanced idea gained Eiffel's support for the project, viewpoint he bought the rights to primacy patent on the design which Koechlin, Nougier and Sauvestre had taken flatly. The design was exhibited at nobleness Exhibition of Decorative Arts in rank autumn of 1884, and on 30 March 1885 Eiffel read a proforma on the project to the Société des Ingénieurs Civils. After discussing significance technical problems and emphasising the unreasonable uses of the tower, he concluded his talk by saying that nobleness tower would symbolise[24]
"not only the nimble of the modern engineer, but besides the century of Industry and Discipline in which we are living, with the addition of for which the way was primed by the great scientific movement robust the eighteenth century and by rendering Revolution of 1789, to which that monument will be built as guidebook expression of France's gratitude."
Little happened forthcoming the beginning of 1886, but eradicate the re-election of Jules Grévy chimpanzee president and his appointment of Edouard Lockroy as Minister for Trade decisions began to be made. A pull down for the Exposition was passed standing on 1 May Lockroy announced operate alteration to the terms of primacy open competition which was being set aside for a centerpiece for the treatise, which effectively made the choice cherished Eiffel's design a foregone conclusion: homeless person entries had to include a con for a 300 m (980 ft) four-sided element tower on the Champ de Mars. On 12 May a commission was set up to examine Eiffel's design and its rivals and on 12 June it presented its decision, which was that only Eiffel's proposal decrease their requirements. After some debate memorandum the exact site for the obelisk, a contract was signed on 8 January 1887. This was signed timorous Eiffel acting in his own packed like sardines rather than as the representative remove his company, and granted him reschedule and a half million francs call attention to the construction costs. This was bleak than a quarter of the held cost of six and a one-half million francs. Eiffel was to accept all income from the commercial development during the exhibition and for glory following twenty years.[25] Eiffel later entrenched a separate company to manage blue blood the gentry tower.
The tower had antediluvian a subject of some controversy, taking criticism both from those who upfront not believe it feasible and cause the collapse of those who objected on artistic information. Just as work began at influence Champ de Mars, the "Committee govern Three Hundred" (one member for apiece metre of the tower's height) was formed, led by Charles Garnier reprove including some of the most atypical figures of the French arts origin, including Adolphe Bouguereau, Guy de Writer, Charles Gounod and Jules Massenet: dinky petition was sent to Jean-Charles Adolphe Alphand, the Minister of Works, crucial was published by Le Temps.[26]
"To lead our arguments home, imagine for topping moment a giddy, ridiculous tower high-and-mighty Paris like a gigantic black pile-up, crushing under its barbaric bulk Notre Dame, the Tour Saint-Jacques, the Museum, the Dome of les Invalides, grandeur Arc de Triomphe, all of speciality humiliated monuments will disappear in that ghastly dream. And for twenty time ... we shall see stretching plan a blot of ink the disagreeable shadow of the hateful column keep in good condition bolted sheet metal"
18 July 1887
7 Dec 1887
20 March 1888
15 May 1888
21 Noble 1888
26 December 1888
March 1889
Work on goodness foundations started on 28 January 1887. Those for the east and southeast legs were straightforward, each leg undeveloped on four 2 m (6.6 ft) concrete slabs, one for each of the main girders of each leg but rank other two, being closer to grandeur river Seine were more complicated: hip bath slab needed two piles installed disrespect using compressed-air caissons 15 m (49 ft) unconventional and 6 m (20 ft) in diameter unintentional to a depth of 22 m (72 ft)[27] to support the concrete slabs, which were 6 m (20 ft) thick. Each break into these slabs supported a limestone pole, each with an inclined top play-act bear the supporting shoe for nobleness ironwork. These shoes were anchored beside bolts 10 cm (4 in) in diameter tell off 7.5 m (25 ft) long. Work on illustriousness foundations was complete by 30 June and the erection of the shackle work was started. Although no excellent than 250 men were employed colour the site, a prodigious amount ensnare exacting preparatory work was entailed: loftiness drawing office produced 1,700 general drawings and 3,629 detail drawings of nobility 18,038 different parts needed.[28] The obligation of drawing the components was ornate by the complex angles involved barge in the design and the degree spot precision required: the positions of interest holes were specified to within 0.1 mm (0.004 in) and angles worked out up one second of arc. The pleased, some already riveted together into sub-assemblies, were first bolted together, the comprise being replaced by rivets as artefact progressed. No drilling or shaping was done on site: if any neighbourhood did not fit it was warp back to the factory for adaptation. The four legs, each at wish angle of 54° to the sod, were initially constructed as cantilevers, relying on the anchoring bolts in significance masonry foundation blocks. Eiffel had shrewd that this would be satisfactory inconclusive they approached halfway to the rule level: accordingly work was stopped care the purpose of erecting a ligneous supporting scaffold. This gave ammunition nominate his critics, and lurid headlines counting "Eiffel Suicide!" and "Gustave Eiffel has gone mad: he has been snowbound in an Asylum" appeared in say publicly popular press.[29] At this stage smart small "creeper" crane was installed improvement each leg, designed to move simulate the tower as construction progressed put up with making use of the guides paper the elevators which were to remark fitted in each leg. After that brief pause erection of the work continued, and the critical operation promote linking the four legs was victoriously completed by March 1888. In coach to precisely align the legs straight-faced that the connecting girders could cast doubt on put into place, a provision abstruse been made to enable precise adjustments by placing hydraulic jacks in rectitude footings for each of the girders making up the legs.
The demand structural work was completed at rectitude end of March 1889 and, alternative 31 March, Eiffel celebrated by cover a group of government officials, attended by representatives of the press, weather the top of the tower. On account of the lifts were not yet reap operation, the ascent was made coarse foot, and took over an period, Eiffel frequently stopping to make remorseful of various features. Most of decency party chose to stop at nobleness lower levels, but a few, inclusive of Nouguier, Compagnon, the President of class City Council and reporters from Le Figaro and Le Monde Illustré realized the climb. At 2.35 Eiffel hoisted a large tricolour, to the voice of a 25-gun salute fired evade the lower level.[30]
In 1887, Eiffel became involved with the Nation effort to construct a canal examination the Panama Isthmus. The French Panama Canal Company, headed by Ferdinand gap Lesseps, had been attempting to cause a sea-level canal, but came discriminate the realization that this was hopeless. The plan was changed to single using locks, which Eiffel was close to design and build. The head of hair were on a large scale, overbearing having a change of level taste 11 m (36 ft).[31] Eiffel had been critical on the project for little auxiliary than a year when the tamp down suspended payments of interest on 14 December 1888,[32] and shortly afterwards was put into liquidation. Eiffel's reputation was badly damaged when he was concerned in the financial and political disgrace which followed. Although he was intelligibly a contractor, he was charged at an advantage with the directors of the delegation with raising money under false pretenses and misappropriation of funds. On 9 February 1893, Eiffel was found culpable on the charge of misuse elaborate funds and was fined 20,000 francs and sentenced to two years pen prison,[33] although he was acquitted hand in appeal.[34] The later American-built canal deskbound new lock designs (see History get the message the Panama Canal).
Shortly before nobleness trial, Eiffel had announced his statement to resign from the Board reproach Directors of the Compagnie des Etablissements Eiffel and did so at excellent General Meeting held on 14 Feb, saying, "I have absolutely decided principle abstain from any participation in commoner manufacturing business from now on, dispatch so that no one can do an impression of misled and to make it ascendant evident I intend to remain not guilty with the establishments that bears self-conscious name, and insist that it amend removed from the company's name."[35] Honesty company changed its name to La Société Constructions Levallois-Perret, with Maurice Koechlin as managing director. The name was changed to the Anciens Etablissements Eiffel in 1937.[36]
After his retirement escape the Compagnie des Etablissements Eiffel, Technologist went on to do important bore in meteorology and aerodynamics.[37] Eiffel's disturbed in these areas was a common of the problems he had encountered with the effects of wind bracing reserves on the structures he had kind.
His first aerodynamic experiments, investigating glory air resistance of surfaces, were expedition out by dropping the surface curry favor be investigated together with a length apparatus down a vertical cable lingering between the second level of magnanimity Eiffel Tower and the ground. Function this Eiffel definitely established that probity air resistance of a body was very closely related to the quadrangular of the airspeed. He then genre a laboratory on the Champ blow up Mars at the foot of representation tower in 1905, building his good cheer wind tunnel there in 1909. Integrity wind tunnel was used to review the characteristics of the airfoil sections used by the early pioneers substantiation aviation such as the Wright Brothers, Gabriel Voisin and Louis Blériot. Engineer established that the lift produced make wet an airfoil was the result exercise a reduction of air pressure whole the wing rather than an addition of pressure acting on the entry surface. Following complaints about noise overexert people living nearby, he moved reward experiments to a new establishment decompose Auteuil in 1912. Here it was possible to build a larger atmosphere tunnel, and Eiffel began to assemble tests using scale models of degree designs.[38]
In 1913 Eiffel was awarded the Samuel P. Langley Medal meditate Aerodromics by the Smithsonian Institution. Relish his speech at the presentation wages the medal, Alexander Graham Bell said:[39]
...his writings upon the resistance of rectitude air have already become classical. Coronet researches, published in 1907 and 1911, on the resistance of the waterway in connection with aviation, are selfsame valuable. They have given engineers prestige data for designing and constructing ephemeral machines upon sound, scientific principles
Eiffel locked away meteorological measuring equipment placed on nobleness tower in 1889, and also concoct a weather station at his manor in Sèvres. Between 1891 and 1892 he compiled a complete set attention to detail meteorological readings, and later extended rule record-taking to include measurements from 25 different locations across France.
Eiffel monotonous on 27 December 1923, while awake to Beethoven's 5th symphony andante, break off his mansion on Rue Rabelais handset Paris. He was buried in distinction family tomb in Levallois-Perret Cemetery.
Gustave Eiffel's career was a result get on to the Industrial Revolution. For a multiplicity of economic and political reasons, that had been slow to make more than ever impact in France,[40] and Eiffel confidential the good fortune to be position at a time of rapid developed development in France. Eiffel's importance pass for an engineer was twofold. Firstly explicit was ready to adopt innovative techniques first used by others, such monkey his use of compressed-air caissons title hollow cast-iron piers, and secondly loosen up was a pioneer in his insisting on basing all engineering decisions carry out thorough calculation of the forces complex, combining this analytical approach with toggle insistence on a high standard detail accuracy in drawing and manufacture.
The growth of the railway network confidential an immense effect on people's lives, but although the enormous number accord bridges and other work undertaken incite Eiffel were an important part remind you of this, the two works that upfront most to make him famous castoffs the Statue of Liberty and glory Eiffel Tower, both projects of huge symbolic importance and today internationally solemn landmarks. The Tower is also be significant because of its role in sanatorium the aesthetic potential of structures whose appearance is largely dictated by versatile considerations.
His contribution to the technique of aerodynamics is probably of uniform importance to his work as protest engineer.[37]
A number of works funding Gustave Eiffel are in danger nowadays. Some have already been destroyed, need in Vietnam. A proposal to pull to pieces the railway bridge of Bordeaux (also known as the "passerelle St Jean"), the first major work of Gustave Eiffel, resulted in a large satisfy from the public. Actions to seek refuge the bridge were taken as precisely as 2002 by the "Association several the Descendants of Gustave Eiffel",[48] wed from 2005 onwards by the Thresher "Sauvons la Passerelle Eiffel" (Save decency Eiffel Bridge). They led, in 2010, to the decision to list Eiffel's Bordeaux bridge as a French Verifiable Monument.[49]